CARDIAC OEDEMA:
It occurs in congestive heart failure. The venous pressure and consequently the capillaries pressure is raised. Oedema in the legs and feet occurs in those who habitually stands and walk over the sacrum in those who sit and the lower part of the back and buttocks in those who lie. The kidneys are involved and the secretion of sodium is diminished. An important factor causing oedema is the inability of the kidney to excrete sodium.
Oedema due to Lymphatic Obstruction is most characteristically,though not invariably seen in the arms after radial mastectomy as the surgeon has removed the lymph glands which drain the auxillary area. This type of oedema form also occurs in elephantiatis due to the filariasis caused by a tropical s.arasite which blocks the lymphatics.
Tuesday, August 3, 2010
Water with its solvents needed for the health of the cells is termed body fluid and this fluid is partly inside and partly outside the cells. Intracellular fluid forms 50% of the body-weight. It lies within the cells and certain electrolytes including potassium and phosphates and food materials like glucose and amino-acids. Enzyme action is constant with in the cell breaking down and building up as in all metabolism to maintain a balance.
Extracellular / interstitial fluid represents 30% of the water in the body (abt 12litres). It is the medium in which the cell live obtaining from it salts, food and oxygen and passing into it their waste products, Blood Plasma forms 5% of body-weight (abt 3 litres) and it is the transport system which serves the cells through the medium of the extracellular fluid.
OEDEMA:
Oedema is waterlogging of the tissues due to a breakdown of the delicate balance described above. It can obviously arise from one of four reasons:
(1) Too high a mechanical hydrostatic pressure in the capillaried as happens, for eg. if the venous drainage is blocked.
(2) Too low an osmotic pressure due to the insufficient plasma protein, particularly albumin.
(3) Blockage of the lymphatics.
(4) Damage of the capillaries wall so that the plasma proteins leak out into the tissue and cause an osmotic pressure opposing the osmotic pressure of the blood stream.
Monday, August 2, 2010
THE SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Systematic anatomy or the division of the body into systems is arranged
(A) according to the functions they perform and
(B) under the heading of the different terms employed to indicate the knowledge of certain parts.
Osteology--------------------is the knowledge of bones
Arthrology-------------------is the knowledge of joints
Myology----------------------is the knowledge of muscles
Splanchnology----------------is the knowledge of organs or viscera
Neurology--------------------is the knowledge of nerves and nerve structure
When grouped according to the function the general arrangement is as follows:
The Locomotory System
The Blood-Vascular System
The Digestive System
The Respiratory System
The Ductless Glands
The Urogenital System
The Nervous System
The Special Sense Organs
The Excretory System
The Locomotory System: This incudes the parts concerned in the movements of the body; the skeletal system which is composed of the bone, and certain cartilages and menbranes, the articulatory system which deals with the joints or articultions and the muscular system which includes muscles, fascia and tendon sheaths.
The Blood-Vascular System: This system includes the circulatory system and lymphatic system. Blood is the principle transport system; it is pumped round the body by the heart, oxygen is grought from the lungs and carbon dioxide collected from the tissues. Food passes to the liver and hence to the general circulation. Waste products are passed to the kidneys.
The Digestive System: This system consists of the alimentary cancl and the glands and organs associated with it. Food is broken down by the enzymes in the digestive track and taken by the blood to the liver and finally to the tissues.
The Respiratory System: This system contains th passage ad organs concerned with breathing. Oxygen from the air is taken into the blood and carried to the tissues; the waste products, carbon-dioxide is carried by the blood from the body tissues to the lungs and beathed out in the expired air.
The Ductless Glands: These ducts are grouped toether because of the internal secretions they produce. The spleen is sometimes included in this group because it also has no duct, though as far as is known it doesnot produce an internl secretion; it is concerned with the formation of red blood cells (RBC's).
The Urogenital System: This system includes the organs of the urinary system and the reproductive system. The waste products of the body, except carbon dioxide are excreted by the kidneys.
The Nervous System: This system is composed of the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cor, the peripheral nervous system consisting of the nerves given off from brain and cord and the autonomic nervous system. The central and peripheral systems are often grouped together and described as the cerebro-spinal nervous system. The autonomis nervous system includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. It is also described as the involuntary nervous system.
The Special Sense Organs: It includes the taste, smell, sight and hearing and also the tactile-function of the skin. It is through these organs that the indivisual is kept aware of external forces and thus enable to protect himself. A chicken aware of the sound of traffic runs or flies to safety.
The Excretory System: It is the term sometimes employed to describe collectively the organs that deal with excretion of waste products from the body. These organs include the urinary system, the lungs in their function of eliminating carbon-dioxide and the colon which excretes certain insoluble substances in the faeces.
(A) according to the functions they perform and
(B) under the heading of the different terms employed to indicate the knowledge of certain parts.
Osteology--------------------is the knowledge of bones
Arthrology-------------------is the knowledge of joints
Myology----------------------is the knowledge of muscles
Splanchnology----------------is the knowledge of organs or viscera
Neurology--------------------is the knowledge of nerves and nerve structure
When grouped according to the function the general arrangement is as follows:
The Locomotory System
The Blood-Vascular System
The Digestive System
The Respiratory System
The Ductless Glands
The Urogenital System
The Nervous System
The Special Sense Organs
The Excretory System
The Locomotory System: This incudes the parts concerned in the movements of the body; the skeletal system which is composed of the bone, and certain cartilages and menbranes, the articulatory system which deals with the joints or articultions and the muscular system which includes muscles, fascia and tendon sheaths.
The Blood-Vascular System: This system includes the circulatory system and lymphatic system. Blood is the principle transport system; it is pumped round the body by the heart, oxygen is grought from the lungs and carbon dioxide collected from the tissues. Food passes to the liver and hence to the general circulation. Waste products are passed to the kidneys.
The Digestive System: This system consists of the alimentary cancl and the glands and organs associated with it. Food is broken down by the enzymes in the digestive track and taken by the blood to the liver and finally to the tissues.
The Respiratory System: This system contains th passage ad organs concerned with breathing. Oxygen from the air is taken into the blood and carried to the tissues; the waste products, carbon-dioxide is carried by the blood from the body tissues to the lungs and beathed out in the expired air.
The Ductless Glands: These ducts are grouped toether because of the internal secretions they produce. The spleen is sometimes included in this group because it also has no duct, though as far as is known it doesnot produce an internl secretion; it is concerned with the formation of red blood cells (RBC's).
The Urogenital System: This system includes the organs of the urinary system and the reproductive system. The waste products of the body, except carbon dioxide are excreted by the kidneys.
The Nervous System: This system is composed of the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cor, the peripheral nervous system consisting of the nerves given off from brain and cord and the autonomic nervous system. The central and peripheral systems are often grouped together and described as the cerebro-spinal nervous system. The autonomis nervous system includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. It is also described as the involuntary nervous system.
The Special Sense Organs: It includes the taste, smell, sight and hearing and also the tactile-function of the skin. It is through these organs that the indivisual is kept aware of external forces and thus enable to protect himself. A chicken aware of the sound of traffic runs or flies to safety.
The Excretory System: It is the term sometimes employed to describe collectively the organs that deal with excretion of waste products from the body. These organs include the urinary system, the lungs in their function of eliminating carbon-dioxide and the colon which excretes certain insoluble substances in the faeces.
The terms used in Anatomy:
Many parts of the human body are systematically arranged. The human body is studied from the erect position with the arms by the sides and the palms of the hands facing forward, he head erect and eyes looking straight in front. This is desvribed as the anatomical position.
> The median planes runs through the center of the body. Any structure which lies nearer to the median plane of the body than another is called medial to that other. For eg; the hamstring muscles which lie on the inner side of the thigh are neaer the median plane than those which lies on the outer side and are therefore medial to the group which are described as lateral.
> The term internal and external are used to describe the relative distance organ or structure from the center of a cavity.
> The term superficial and deep are used to denote relative distance from the surface of the body, and the term superior and inferior denotes positions relatively high or low, particularly in reltion to the trunk, such as the superior ad inferior surfaces of the clavicle.
> The term anterior and posterior are the synonymous with ventral and dorsal. These terms are only applied to the man in the erect attitude or 'anatomical position'.
> The term proximal or distal are employed to describe nearness to or distance from a given point, particularly in relation to the limbs.
Many parts of the human body are systematically arranged. The human body is studied from the erect position with the arms by the sides and the palms of the hands facing forward, he head erect and eyes looking straight in front. This is desvribed as the anatomical position.
> The median planes runs through the center of the body. Any structure which lies nearer to the median plane of the body than another is called medial to that other. For eg; the hamstring muscles which lie on the inner side of the thigh are neaer the median plane than those which lies on the outer side and are therefore medial to the group which are described as lateral.
> The term internal and external are used to describe the relative distance organ or structure from the center of a cavity.
> The term superficial and deep are used to denote relative distance from the surface of the body, and the term superior and inferior denotes positions relatively high or low, particularly in reltion to the trunk, such as the superior ad inferior surfaces of the clavicle.
> The term anterior and posterior are the synonymous with ventral and dorsal. These terms are only applied to the man in the erect attitude or 'anatomical position'.
> The term proximal or distal are employed to describe nearness to or distance from a given point, particularly in relation to the limbs.
Saturday, July 31, 2010
Introduction To Human Body
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and of the relationship of its constituent parts to each other. In general anatomy a geographical study is made and each region, eg. arm, legs, head, chest, etc..., is found to consist of a no. of structures common to all regions such as bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels and so on. From this study it follows that a no. of different system exists. These have been grouped together and described under the heading systematic anatomy.
A study of the position and relationship of one part of the body couldn't be separated from a consideration of the use of each structure and system. This study led to the employment of the functional anatomy which is closely related to the study of Physiology. Then again it was found that certain structures could be examined by the naked eyes and the term microscopic anatomy was introduced to describe this study, in distinction to microscopy anatomy which necessitates the use of a microscope. Closely allied to the study of anatomy are histology, the study of fine structures of the body, and cytology, the study of the cells.
Physiology: It is the study of the function of the normal human body. It is closely linked with the study of all living things in the subject biology; as well as this there is the work of the cytologist, interested in detail of the structure of cells and that of the biochemist, dealing with the chemical changes and activities of the cells and investigating the complex chemistry of life and there is physics, the study of the physical reactions and movements taking place in the body. The body is made up of many tissues and organs, each having it's own particular function to perform. The cell is the unit of the smallest element of the body of which all parts are comprised. The cells are adopted to form the special functions of the organ or tissue they are in. Some cells, such as those in the nervous system and muscles, are very specialized indeed; other, such as those in the connective tissues, are less highly developed. As a general rule the most highly specialized cells are the least able to withstand damage and also are the mosrt difficult to repair or replace.
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and of the relationship of its constituent parts to each other. In general anatomy a geographical study is made and each region, eg. arm, legs, head, chest, etc..., is found to consist of a no. of structures common to all regions such as bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels and so on. From this study it follows that a no. of different system exists. These have been grouped together and described under the heading systematic anatomy.
A study of the position and relationship of one part of the body couldn't be separated from a consideration of the use of each structure and system. This study led to the employment of the functional anatomy which is closely related to the study of Physiology. Then again it was found that certain structures could be examined by the naked eyes and the term microscopic anatomy was introduced to describe this study, in distinction to microscopy anatomy which necessitates the use of a microscope. Closely allied to the study of anatomy are histology, the study of fine structures of the body, and cytology, the study of the cells.
Physiology: It is the study of the function of the normal human body. It is closely linked with the study of all living things in the subject biology; as well as this there is the work of the cytologist, interested in detail of the structure of cells and that of the biochemist, dealing with the chemical changes and activities of the cells and investigating the complex chemistry of life and there is physics, the study of the physical reactions and movements taking place in the body. The body is made up of many tissues and organs, each having it's own particular function to perform. The cell is the unit of the smallest element of the body of which all parts are comprised. The cells are adopted to form the special functions of the organ or tissue they are in. Some cells, such as those in the nervous system and muscles, are very specialized indeed; other, such as those in the connective tissues, are less highly developed. As a general rule the most highly specialized cells are the least able to withstand damage and also are the mosrt difficult to repair or replace.
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